CYRUS THE GREAT: The Story of Persia’s Greatest King

Cyrus the Great is a legendary figure in ancient history, known for his conquests and for establishing one of the greatest empires of antiquity. Cyrus’s rise to power marked the end of Median control and the fall of the Babylonian Empire. Of course, Cyrus’s lineage was closely linked to this heritage; he was preceded as king by his father and his grandfather, a lineage of monarchs who left their mark on history in the region. The lands controlled by these peoples were not very well suited for agriculture, and the Medes, with their well-organized army, conquered these territories and controlled the area, forcing the local populations to pay heavy taxes that drained their wealth. This was a great change for people who were previously free to govern their lands as they wished, but everything was about to change when Cyrus succeeded his father and inherited the throne. At that time, Astyages was the King of the Medes. According to the historian Herodotus, instead of obeying the king, a general contacted Cyrus, encouraging him to rebel and promising his support and that of the army.

It was then that in 553 BC, Cyrus decided to rebel against the Medes to establish his own empire. His first conquest was in Ecbatana, the Median capital ruled by Astyages. This event was recorded in ancient sources such as the Nabonidus Cylinder and the Nabonidus Chronicle, which give us a glimpse of what happened at that time. According to the Nabonidus Cylinder, in 553 BC, Cyrus, then king of Anzan, decided to challenge his overlord with a seemingly small army. The Median kingdom was then divided, with part of the army and members of the nobility deserting to Cyrus’s side. Astyages, surprised by this betrayal, saw his power begin to crumble. The combined forces supporting Cyrus quickly succeeded in defeating Astyages, capturing him and ending his reign. Cyrus emerged as the new leader, establishing a new era in the region. After the fall of Astyages, Cyrus chose to spare the king’s life and sealed an alliance by marrying his daughter. This marriage was a political move aimed at pacifying the subordinate peoples, and thus Cyrus solidified his position as leader of a rising empire.

Some believe that Cyrus took over all the lands previously conquered by the Medes, which, according to Herodotus, included all of Asia except Assyria. At the height of his military campaigns, between 546 and 539 BC, Cyrus the Great further expanded his empire, incorporating more lands under his control. As reported by Herodotus, with the previous ruler removed from power, all his vassals and close relatives were now under Cyrus’s direct command. For instance, his uncle, who previously ruled under Median rule, had to abdicate, but the transition seems to have been peaceful, continuing as a nominal governor under the authority of Cyrus. Other relatives were appointed as satraps, uniting the kingdoms under one crown.

Another important conquest of Cyrus was Lydia, a prosperous kingdom in the region of Asia Minor ruled by the famous King Croesus. Lydia was known for its wealth and influence, making it a prime target. Croesus, an ally and relative of the former Median king, vowed to avenge his family member’s fall. When he learned that Cyrus had deposed him, this promise of revenge triggered a series of events that culminated in an armed confrontation. The first major battle occurred near Pitera, a city in Cappadocia. The armies met, but the battle ended in a stalemate with both sides suffering heavy losses, leading Croesus to return to Sardis during the winter, followed closely by Cyrus. A second battle took place where Cyrus innovated by using dromedaries to disperse the Lydian cavalry, forcing Croesus to retreat to his capital Sardis. After a tense 14-day siege, Sardis finally fell to Cyrus’s forces, expanding his empire and setting a precedent for future military campaigns. By the middle of the century, Cyrus had probably already conquered the entire region of Armenia as well.

Of all Cyrus’s conquests, the most famous was undoubtedly the conquest of Babylon in 539 BC. One of the most memorable moments of this episode is the ingenious way in which Cyrus and his men entered the city. Herodotus recounts that, using a basin previously excavated by a former queen, the troops diverted the Euphrates into a channel, lowering the water level to the ideal height to cross on foot. This allowed the invading forces to march directly across the riverbed, surprising the defenders. On the night of October 12, 539 BC, troops entered Babylon without encountering resistance and detained King Nabonidus. The city surrendered to Cyrus, who triumphantly entered on October 29, marking the end of Babylonian rule and the beginning of a new era. This victory marked the end of dominance by previous rulers in Mesopotamia and the Middle East, establishing a powerful new realm. Inheriting these vast territories, Cyrus faced the challenge of unifying and governing these lands effectively. However, by all accounts, the transition of power was relatively smooth, with reports indicating that Cyrus did not face major problems in pacifying the newly conquered regions, which provided a stable base for agriculture and valuable resources for trade.

To commemorate this great conquest, Cyrus commissioned the creation of a document known as the Cyrus Cylinder, written for publication in Babylon to increase his fame and legitimize his rule. In this document, Cyrus is represented as a divinely appointed leader, attributing his victory to the local god Mardu, who was allegedly displeased with Nabonidus. The Cyrus Cylinder is often considered an early charter of human rights, demonstrating how he acted to benefit his people. Furthermore, Cyrus’s rule was marked by remarkable tolerance towards conquered peoples. He made significant improvements in the lives of the inhabitants of Babylon by repatriating displaced peoples, restoring temples and sanctuaries, and cooperating with various groups by returning sacred utensils that had been taken away decades earlier. The cylinder bears an inscription detailing these humanitarian policies, quoting Cyrus as saying that he returned sacred cities, restored ruined sanctuaries, and gathered former inhabitants to return them to their dwellings. This attitude was quite different from the cruel and oppressive domination exercised by many leaders before him.

Little is known about the last years of Cyrus’s life. After consolidating a vast empire that stretched from Asia Minor to the Middle East, he faced challenges and conflicts on his eastern borders. Herodotus recounts that Cyrus died in a battle against the Massagetae, a nomadic people who lived beyond the river, while another historian claims he was killed while trying to suppress a revolt by the Derbiccae, another nomadic group from Central Asia. These different versions only increase the mystery surrounding his death. Ultimately, Cyrus was buried in Pasargadae with his cloak, weapons, and jewels beside him, and his tomb was discovered by archaeologists, remaining an important historical site in Iran to this day. After his death, his son Cambyses ascended the throne, continuing the conquests and further expanding the empire in his father’s footsteps. Even after his passing, Cyrus left a lasting legacy that shaped not only his own empire but also the entire course of human history, inspiring generations to come through his remarkable blend of military genius and administrative wisdom.